The biology of polar regions

Introduction to the polar regions

Introduction

The energy balances of the polar regions

Climate

Thermohaline circulation

El Niño Southern Oscillation

Arctic and North Atlantic Oscillations

Magnetic and electrical phenomena

Stress, adaptation, and survival in polar regions

Introduction

Life at low temperatures

Desiccation

The effects of radiation

Biological rhythms in the polar environment

Periglacial and terrestrial habitats in polar regions

Introduction

Substrata

Communities

The physiological ecology of polar plants and invertebrates

Specialized communities

Comparison of Arctic and Antarctic terrestrial habitats and communities

Glacial habitats in polar regions

Introduction

Life in the interior of polar ice sheets and glaciers

Life at the margin

The snow alga community

Wider perspectives

Inland waters in polar regions

Introduction

Arctic lakes

Antarctic lakes

Streams and rivers

Conclusions

Open oceans in polar regions

Introduction

Gradients in waters

The plankton

The physiological ecology of polar phytoplankton

The zooplankton

Squid

Fish

The polar marine pelagic systems

Frozen oceans in polar regions

Introduction

The physical characteristics of sea ice

The biology of sea ice

The ice edge

Polynyas

The wider significance of sea ice biology

Marine benthos in polar regions

Introduction

The littoral zone

The shallow sublittoral zone

The benthos of deep waters

Benthos under ice shelves

Seasonality and dynamics of benthic communities

Comparisons and conclusions

Birds and mammals in polar regions

Introduction

Seabirds

Seals

Whales

Bears and foxes

Climate change in polar regions

Introduction

Changes during geological time: the ice ages

Biological responses to long-term changes

Present-day global climate change and polar regions

Human impact on polar regions

The first invasions by humans

The ecology of pre-industrial humans in the Arctic

Sealing and whaling

Hunting

Fishing

Pastoral and agriculture development

Introduction of non-native organisms by humans

Mineral and oil extraction

Pollution

Tourism

Military uses of the polar regions

Conservation

Some conclusions.