U.S. foreign policy towards apartheid South Africa, 1948-1994: conflict of interests

A balancing act: key U.S. interests and Apartheid South Africa

"Mutual cooperation" and "serious concern": the Truman and Eisenhower administrations, 1948-1961

"The best of both worlds": the Kennedy administration, 1961-1963

"A frustratingly difficult set of policy considerations to juggle": the Johnson administration, 1963-1969

"The whites are here to stay": the Nixon and Ford administrations, 1969-1977

"Andy Young is not a policy": the Carter administration, 1977-1981

"Neither the clandestine embrace nor the polecat treatment": the Reagan administration, 1981-1984

"There are occasions when quiet diplomacy is not enough": the Reagan administration, 1984-1986

"Sanctions by themselves do not represent a policy": the Reagan, Bush, and Clinton administrations, 1986-1994.